Flexion and Extension
Flexion is a movement in the sagittal plane, which decreases the angle at the moving joint. The extension is the opposite movement, which increases the angle at the joint. Many types of synovial joints are capable of flexion and extension (hinge; ball and socket; saddle; condyloid) including the shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, and knee. Here are some examples:
In the videos above, shoulder flexion is the action of raising the arm above the head. The extension is then the downward movement. In the photo, the shoulder is in an extended position. For the knee, bending the knee in flexion, as the angle is reduced (as shown in the picture) and straightening it is called extension.
Flexion and extension at the ankle joint are called dorsiflexion and plantarflexion. Dorsiflexion is when you point your toes toward the ceiling and plantar flexion is when you point your toes away, toward the floor. Remember to start in the anatomical starting position!
Abduction and Adduction
These are movements in the frontal plane and involve moving the body part away or towards an imaginary centre line. Abduction is taking the body part away from the central line and adduction is moving it towards (remember this by thinking adduction adds the body part to the centre). Adduction can also be moving the body part across the centre line and to the other side of the body, as shown in the hip abduction video below. Amongst the joints capable of abduction and adduction are the shoulder and hip.
Other abductions and adduction movements include the fingers. If you splay your fingers and move them apart, this is abduction as they are moving away from the centre position. When you bring the fingers back together, this is adduction, as you are adding them back to the centre line.
Rotation
Rotation movements are in the transverse plane and include any twisting motion. Joints that permit rotation include the shoulder and hip. These are both ball and socket joints. We can also rotate our necks and backs due to a series of smaller joints, including the atlantoaxial joint which is a pivot joint in the neck between the first two vertebrae (C1 and C2).
Rotation of the hip and shoulder can be broken down into internal or external rotation (also sometimes known as medial and lateral rotation respectively). In the example of the shoulder video below, internal rotation is the movement of the hand either inwards towards the body (when the shoulder is adducted) or down to point towards the floor (when the shoulder is abducted). External rotation is, therefore, the opposite, when the hand moves away from the body (when the shoulder is adducted) or up towards the ceiling (when the shoulder is abducted).
Circumduction
Circumduction is a combination of all of the movements above. It is possible at ball and socket, condyloid and saddle joints such as the shoulder, hip, wrist, and ankle. It involves moving the entire connecting limb through its full range of motion. Here is an example of shoulder circumduction:
Pronation, Supination, Inversion, and Eversion
Pronation and supination are specialised movements of the forearm and ankle. In the forearm, pronation is the movement of turning the palm over to face downwards (or backward if starting in anatomical neutral). Supination is the opposite movement, of turning the palm up or forwards. The movement here comes from the proximal radio-ulnar joint (the joint just below the elbow, between the Radius and Ulna bones) which is a pivot joint, allowing the Radius to move around the Ulna.
At the ankle, supination is the movement of turning the sole of the foot inwards. This is sometimes called an inversion. Pronation is the movement of turning the sole of the foot outwards, sometimes called eversion. You will sometimes hear people saying they have over-pronated feet, meaning their sole turns outwards slightly more than it should when they walk or run, giving the appearance of a flat foot, without an arch.